Etrecheck 4 1 – For Troubleshooting Your Macros

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The following points highlight the six major macro-economic issues. The issues are: 1. Employment and Unemployment 2. Infla­tion 3. The Trade Cycle 4. Stagflation 5. Economic Growth 6. The Exchange Rate and the Balance of Payments.

Issue # 1. Employment and Unemployment:

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Un­employment refers to involuntary idleness of resour­ces including manpower. If this problem exists, society's actual output (or GNP) will be less than its potential output. So one of the objectives of Govern­ment policy is to ensure full employment which implies absence of involuntary unemployment of any type.

Issue # 2. Inflation:

It refers to a situation of constant­ly rising prices of commodities and factors of produc­tion. The opposite situation is known as deflation. During inflation some people gain and most people lose. So there is a change in the pattern of income distribution. Therefore, one of the objectives of government policy is to ensure price level stability which implies the absence of inflation and deflation.

Issue # 3. The Trade Cycle:

It refers to periodic fluc­tuations in the levels of economic or business ac­tivities, i.e., the tendency for output (GNP) and employment to fluctuate over time in a recurring sequence of ups and downs. The periods of good trade alternate with periods of bad trade, or, boom periods of high output and high employment alternate with slump periods of low output and low employment.

In boom periods, employment is low but the rate of inflation is high. In periods of depression (or reces­sion) unemployment is high and the rate of inflation is moderate. In macroeconomics we study the causes of business cycles and suggest remedial measures.

Issue # 4. Stagflation:

Most modern mixed econo­mics suffer from the disease of stagflation which im­plies the co-existence of inflation and unemployment in a stagnant economy. The trade-off between infla­tion and unemployment is perhaps the most complex macroeconomic issue of the day. Every country in the world is now struggling hard to fight the disease of stagflation.

Issue # 5. Economic Growth:

In spite of short-term fluctuations of output that are associated with the trade cycle, the long-term trend of total output has been upward in most industrially advanced country. The trend in the nation's total output over the long period is known as economic growth.

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It refers to an expansion of society's production capacity such as bringing new land under cultivation or setting up new factories. Growth is measured by the annual rate of increase of per capita income and is illustrated by a rightward shift of the production possibility curve.

There are three major sources of growth, viz.,:

(1) The growth of the labour force,

(2) Capital formation and

(3) Technological progress.

A country seeks to achieve economic growth mainly for improving the standards of living of its people. If the rate of economic growth exceeds the rate of population growth, there is likely to be an improvement in the standard of living for the average person.

Issue # 6. The Exchange Rate and the Balance of Pay­ments:

The balance of payments is a systematic record of all economic transactions between the mem­bers of the home country and the rest of the world in an accounting year. These transactions are largely, if not entirely, influenced by the exchange rate. It is the rate at which a country's economy is exchanged for another currency (or gold).

The trend in the value of the rupee in terms of two major currencies of the world, viz., the U.S. dollar and British pound, has been downward in the last two decades. Economists are always eager to discover the cause and consequences of such changes.

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The header files for the Windows API enable you to create 32- and 64-bit applications. They include declarations for both Unicode and ANSI versions of the API. For more information, see Unicode in the Windows API. They use data types that enable you to build both 32- and 64-bit versions of your application from a single source code base. For more information, see Getting Ready for 64-bit Windows. Additional features include Header Annotations and STRICT Type Checking.

Visual C++ and the Windows Header Files

Microsoft Visual C++ includes copies of the Windows header files that were current at the time Visual C++ was released. Therefore, if you install updated header files from an SDK, you may end up with multiple versions of the Windows header files on your computer. If you do not ensure that you are using the latest version of the SDK header files, you will receive the following error code when compiling code that uses features that were introduced after Visual C++ was released: error C2065: undeclared identifier.

Macros for Conditional Declarations

Certain functions that depend on a particular version of Windows are declared using conditional code. This enables you to use the compiler to detect whether your application uses functions that are not supported on its target version(s) of Windows. To compile an application that uses these functions, you must define the appropriate macros. Otherwise, you will receive the C2065 error message.

The Windows header files use macros to indicate which versions of Windows support many programming elements. Therefore, you must define these macros to use new functionality introduced in each major operating system release. (Individual header files may use different macros; therefore, if compilation problems occur, check the header file that contains the definition for conditional definitions.) For more information, see SdkDdkVer.h.

The following table describes the preferred macros used in the Windows header files. If you define NTDDI_VERSION, you must also define _WIN32_WINNT.

Minimum system requiredValue for NTDDI_VERSION
Windows 10 1903 '19H1'NTDDI_WIN10_19H1 (0x0A000007)
Windows 10 1809 'Redstone 5'NTDDI_WIN10_RS5 (0x0A000006)
Windows 10 1803 'Redstone 4'NTDDI_WIN10_RS4 (0x0A000005)
Windows 10 1709 'Redstone 3'NTDDI_WIN10_RS3 (0x0A000004)
Windows 10 1703 'Redstone 2'NTDDI_WIN10_RS2 (0x0A000003)
Windows 10 1607 'Redstone 1'NTDDI_WIN10_RS1 (0x0A000002)
Windows 10 1511 'Threshold 2'NTDDI_WIN10_TH2 (0x0A000001)
Windows 10 1507 'Threshold'NTDDI_WIN10 (0x0A000000)
Windows 8.1NTDDI_WINBLUE (0x06030000)
Windows 8NTDDI_WIN8 (0x06020000)
Windows 7NTDDI_WIN7 (0x06010000)
Windows Server 2008NTDDI_WS08 (0x06000100)
Windows Vista with Service Pack 1 (SP1)NTDDI_VISTASP1 (0x06000100)
Windows VistaNTDDI_VISTA (0x06000000)
Windows Server 2003 with Service Pack 2 (SP2)NTDDI_WS03SP2 (0x05020200)
Windows Server 2003 with Service Pack 1 (SP1)NTDDI_WS03SP1 (0x05020100)
Windows Server 2003NTDDI_WS03 (0x05020000)
Windows XP with Service Pack 3 (SP3)NTDDI_WINXPSP3 (0x05010300)
Windows XP with Service Pack 2 (SP2)NTDDI_WINXPSP2 (0x05010200)
Windows XP with Service Pack 1 (SP1)NTDDI_WINXPSP1 (0x05010100)
Windows XPNTDDI_WINXP (0x05010000)

The following tables describe other macros used in the Windows header files.

Minimum system requiredMinimum value for _WIN32_WINNT and WINVER
Windows 10_WIN32_WINNT_WIN10 (0x0A00)
Windows 8.1_WIN32_WINNT_WINBLUE (0x0603)
Windows 8_WIN32_WINNT_WIN8 (0x0602)
Windows 7_WIN32_WINNT_WIN7 (0x0601)
Windows Server 2008_WIN32_WINNT_WS08 (0x0600)
Windows Vista_WIN32_WINNT_VISTA (0x0600)
Windows Server 2003 with SP1, Windows XP with SP2_WIN32_WINNT_WS03 (0x0502)
Windows Server 2003, Windows XP_WIN32_WINNT_WINXP (0x0501)
Minimum version requiredMinimum value of _WIN32_IE
Internet Explorer 11.0_WIN32_IE_IE110 (0x0A00)
Internet Explorer 10.0_WIN32_IE_IE100 (0x0A00)
Internet Explorer 9.0_WIN32_IE_IE90 (0x0900)
Internet Explorer 8.0_WIN32_IE_IE80 (0x0800)
Internet Explorer 7.0_WIN32_IE_IE70 (0x0700)
Internet Explorer 6.0 SP2_WIN32_IE_IE60SP2 (0x0603)
Internet Explorer 6.0 SP1_WIN32_IE_IE60SP1 (0x0601)
Internet Explorer 6.0_WIN32_IE_IE60 (0x0600)
Internet Explorer 5.5_WIN32_IE_IE55 (0x0550)
Internet Explorer 5.01_WIN32_IE_IE501 (0x0501)
Internet Explorer 5.0, 5.0a, 5.0b_WIN32_IE_IE50 (0x0500)

Setting WINVER or _WIN32_WINNT

You can define these symbols by using the #define statement in each source file, or by specifying the /D compiler option supported by Visual C++.

For example, to set WINVER in your source file, use the following statement:

#define WINVER 0x0502

To set _WIN32_WINNT in your source file, use the following statement:

#define _WIN32_WINNT 0x0502

To set _WIN32_WINNT using the /D compiler option, use the following command:

cl -c /D_WIN32_WINNT=0x0502source.cpp

For information on using the /D compiler option, see /D (preprocessor definitions).

Note that some features introduced in the latest version of Windows may be added to a service pack for a previous version of Windows. Therefore, to target a service pack, you may need to define _WIN32_WINNT with the value for the next major operating system release. For example, the GetDllDirectory function was introduced in Windows Server 2003 and is conditionally defined if _WIN32_WINNT is 0x0502 or greater. This function was also added to Windows XP with SP1. Therefore, if you were to define _WIN32_WINNT as 0x0501 to target Windows XP, you would miss features that are defined in Windows XP with SP1.

Controlling Structure Packing

Projects should be compiled to use the default structure packing, which is currently 8 bytes because the largest integral type is 8 bytes. Doing so ensures that all structure types within the header files are compiled into the application with the same alignment the Windows API expects. It also ensures that structures with 8-byte values are properly aligned and will not cause alignment faults on processors that enforce data alignment.

For more information, see /Zp (struct member alignment) or pack.

Faster Builds with Smaller Header Files

Etrecheck 4 1 – For Troubleshooting Your Macros

You can reduce the size of the Windows header files by excluding some of the less common API declarations as follows:

Etrecheck 4 1 – For Troubleshooting Your Macros 2

  • Define WIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN to exclude APIs such as Cryptography, DDE, RPC, Shell, and Windows Sockets.

    #define WIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN

  • Define one or more of the NOapi symbols to exclude the API. For example, NOCOMM excludes the serial communication API. For a list of support NOapi symbols, see Windows.h.

    #define NOCOMM

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